This guide is intended to support the data analysis work that is an integral part of graduate coursework. It is essential to acquire a firm grasp of both descriptive and inferential statistics since they will be used for a wide array of analytical purposes.
Following presentation of ways to modify data, information specific to various descriptive and inferential statistics is provdided. The information presented in each section provides both context (when to use) and menu paths within SPSS to follow to execute various analyses.
- Modifying Data
- Graphs
- Reliability
- Objectivity
Differences - Parametric, Non-parametric Relationships - Parametric, Non-parametric- Power & Sample size
- Factor Analysis
Frequently due to the nature of the group that measures have been obtained from, analyses on a subset of the entire group are of interest. When this is the case you first identify the subset (select cases) then proceed with the analysis.
Some of the analyses to be conducted may need to be repeated on all groups that make up a variable (e.g. gender: males/females). For example you may want to look at the correlation between exercise frequency and cholesterol level for men then for women. You could of course use the procedure above first for the males then repeat for females. However, the split file feature lets you do the two analyses at the same time.
Regardless of the nature of the variable, it is often useful to condense information before reporting it. For example: Assume you collected information on years of education in 5 categories (< High School, High School, some college, Bachelors degree, > Masters degree) but only wanted to report the proportion of people with no college work and those with at least some college work. You would not want to manipulate the original variable so you would first create a new variable then recode the new variable.
In situations where you have component information and you need for example a total for each individual, a new variable needs to be created. This is easily done within the transform menu.
To obtain a listing of all variable information (e.g. labels, names) contained in the variable view:
Notice that the information produced in the output file is essentially the same as that in the variable view. The information will be displayed in two parts: the Variable Information and the Variable Values.
Summarizing group information is typically the first step in the search for patterns, highlights, and meaning in a data set. Summary information can be presented both visually with the use of graphs and in the form of summary statistics. This section will focus on:
This table conveys in column 2 what statistics could be used when the data is of the level of measurement listed to the left. This table does NOT convey information about what the level of measurement is for the statistics in the 2nd column. For example, percentiles are NOT interval scaled data.
Measurement Scale | Statistics/SPSS procedures |
Categorical | Percentages: Frequencies (FDT) |
Ordinal | Percentages: Frequencies (FDT) |
Interval | Central Tendency: Frequencies-stats; compare means (for sub-groups) |
Ratio | Central Tendency: Frequencies-stats; compare means (for sub-groups) Variability: Frequencies-stats; compare means (for sub-groups) Percentile & Percentile Ranks: Frequencies-stats Histogram: Frequencies Correlation: Correlate (PPMC) Scatterplot Inferential Stats: t-tests, ANOVAs |
For categorical and ordinal data the construction of frequency distribution tables is an excellent way to summarize group information.
If you were to make a frequency distribution table by hand you would simply list each category/value observed followed by a count (also called absolute frequency) of the number of individuals in that category. An additional column called the relative frequency is often useful since it notes the percentage of the group in a particular category. For example:
Gender | f | rf | ||
Male | 28 | 48% | ||
Female | 30 | 52% |
f: absolute frequency - count
rf: relative frequency - count/N (100) - record as %
To get a frequency distribution table for all cases in the data file:
To get a frequency distribution table for a subset of cases in the data file:
With subgroup now selected:
Remember to go back through data menu to reselect all cases before starting analyses where all cases are needed.
Note: You would not construct frequency distribution tables for continuous data when the intent is to summarize information. The reason is that such data can take on a great number of values and since each value is listed in a frequency distribution table little summary may accomplished. Measures of Central Tendency and Variability are much more useful in summarizing group information for continuous data. |
Following entry of data into the SPSS spreadsheet it is important to check for errors. For example, consider the variable GENDER with value labels of 1 for male and 2 for female. It is reasonable to assume that a typing error could result in entries of other than a 1 or 2. One way to detect this error is to have SPSS produce a frequency distribution table for this variable. It might look like this:
Gender | frequency | ||
Male | 35 | ||
Female | 41 | ||
3 | 6 | ||
6 | 2 |
This table makes it clear that 8 of the entries are erroneous. For six subjects the value 3 was entered for gender and for another two subjects the value 6 was entered. With the errors detected, you would use the search feature in SPSS to find these data entry errors and correct them.
To get a frequency distribution table for all variables and all cases in the data file:
When data entry errors located, but you cannot correct them then in the variable view of the data identify that number as a missing value so SPSS does not use it in any analyses. If you identify values that appear incorrect but only for select cases, then enter a blank in place of the value you deem inappropriate in the spreadsheet view of the data. For example, consider the situation where you have obtained two heart rates. One resting and the other one minute after jogging in place. If for one of the cases the two values were 128 and 128 that seems likely to be an error since the resting heart rate is quite high and the exercise heart rate is unlikely to be the same as the resting heart rate. If you don't have access to the original data so you can re-enter the correct values then you need to make these values missing. But since 128 may be a legitimate value for some other cases you can't just assign it a missing value. You need to go into the spreadsheet, find this case and delete each 128 leaving blank cells for these two variables for this particular case.
Note: Constructing frequency distribution tables for every variable for the purpose of error checking is important to complete prior to initiating any analytical work. |
For categorical and ordinal data the construction of crosstabulation tables is an excellent way to cross-reference summary information for two or more variables.
If you were to make a crosstabulation table by hand you would in rows list each category/value of one variable and in columns list each category/value of a second variable. The table then would contain a count of the number of individuals in cells representing the various combinations of values for the two variables. For example, you might want to combine in one table gender (categorical) and age group (ordinal).
Age Group | ||||
20-25 | 26-30 | 31-35 | ||
Male | 28 | 20 | 15 | |
Gender | ||||
Female | 30 | 18 | 20 |
From this table you can see that 28 of the subjects were male and in the youngest age group, and 18 of the subjects were female and in the middle age group.
Step Summary to break down by a 3rd variable.
Note: You would not construct crosstabulation tables for continuous data when the intent is to summarize information. The reason is that such data can take on a great number of values and each value would be listed in a crosstabulation table. Therefore little summary may be accomplished. Measures of Central Tendency and Variability are much more useful in summarizing group information for continuous variables. |
Risk Odds Ratio
Crosstabulation of two dichotomous variables where one represents the presence/absence of a disease or outcome and the other variable represents the presence/absence of a risk factor enables you to obtain the risk odds ratio statistic.
Measures of central tendency summarize data by identifying where the center of a distribution of scores is. Measures of variability summarize data by quantifying the spread or dispersion of scores around the center.
For categorical and ordinal data with few categories, the Mode (though not an optimal measure) is an acceptable measure of central tendency and the range is an appropriate measure of variability. Frequently however, such data is best summarized with a frequency distribution table.
For data at least interval scaled, the Median and Mean are appropriate measures of central tendency. If the distribution of scores is skewed the Median is the best measure of central tendency. The most common measure of variability is the standard deviation and is appropriate for use with data at least interval scaled.
In addition to being used to summarize a data set, measures of central tendency and variability are critical compoenents of other statistical procedures.
Using the frequencies option in SPSS:
If working with interval or ratio data and the data is normally distributed you can obtain the mean and standard deviation from the descriptions option in SPSS:
REMEMBER, you must check the shape (obtain histogram under graphs) of the distribution of scores to decide what measure of central tendency is appropriate. If the shape is skewed then you need to obtain a median.
To get measures of central tendency and variability for continous measures on subgroups of your sample,
To break the analysis down by a 2nd categorical variable:
REMEMBER, you must check the shape (obtain histograms under explore option) of the distribution of scores for each group to decide what measure of central tendency is appropriate. If the shape is skewed for either group then you need to obtain medians.
There are several types of correlation coefficients to choose from. The choice is based on the nature of the data being correlated.
Pearson Product Moment Correlation | Use when both variables have continuous data |
Phi | Use when both variables have dichotomous data |
Kendall's Tau | Use when both variables have ordinal data |
Point Biserial Correlation | Use when one variable has continuous data and the other a true dichotomy |
The PPMC can be used to describe the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two continuous variables. When two variables are not linearly related, the PPMC is likely to underestimate the true strength of the relationship. A graph of the x and y values can show whether or not the relationship is linear.
Kendall's Tau can be used to describe the strength and direction of the relationship between two ordinal variables. It is a rank-order correlation coefficient (as is PPMC) and can convey the extent to which pairs of values (x,y) are in the same rank order.
The Point Biserial Correlation can be used to describe the strength of the relationship between one continuous variables and one dichotomous variable. The point biserial correlation coefficient is useful in detecting a pattern in group measures (e.g one group's scores tending to be higher than another group).
The computational formula for the point biserial coefficient is
Where:
X0 = mean of x values for those in category 0
X1 = mean of the x values for those in category 1
Sx = standard deviation of all x values
P0 = proportion of people in category 0
P1 = proportion of people in category 1
Graphs are the visual counterparts to descriptive statistics and are very powerful mechanisms for revealing patterns in a data set. In addition, when used appropriately in a report they can highlight trends and summarize pertinent information in a way no amount of text could.
When summarizing categorical data, pie or bar charts are the most efficient and easy to interpret though line graphs may be more helpful particularly at times when trying to draw attention to trends in the data. For continuous data, histograms are a good choice, easily constructed and simple to interpret. When attempting to represent visually the relationship between two continuous variables a scattergram can be used.
To create simple bar, chart for categorical and ordinal (with few categories) data:
To create a scattergram (two continous variables)
To create a histogram (continuous variable) you can work from the frequencies option
To create histograms for subsets of a group:
To break down by a 2nd categorical variable:
Depending on the type and purpose of a test, criterion-related validity of can be examined from one or more of several perspectives. The two situations covered in this class are:
This is examined when you are interested in the extent to which a particular measure is as good as an already established criterion known to provide valid and reliable data. You determine this by correlating your scoress (x is continuous) with scores or classifications from a criterion measure (y).
The process would entail:
The primary concern here is the accuracy of measures. Reducing sources of measurement error is the key to enhancing the reliability of the data.
Reliability is typically assessed in one of two ways:
To estimate reliability you need 2 or more scores (or classifications) per person.
Note: When interpreting coefficient alpha or the intraclass R, a value > .70 reflects good reliability. |
If multiple cognitive and motor skills/physiological measures collected on one day, the estimate of reliability is referred to as internal consistency. The intraclass coefficients you can use are Cronbach's Alpha and the Intraclass R.
Steps for Intraclass R
If every individual can be measured twice on the variable you're interested in then you readily have data from which reliability can be examined.
Once you have 2 scores per person the question is how consistent overall were the scores.
In many situations reliability has been estimated incorrectly using the Pearson correlation coefficient. This is not appropriate since (1) the PPMC is meant to show the relationship between two different variables - not two measures of the same variable, and (2) the PPMC is not sensitive to fluctuations in test scores. The PPMC is an interclass coefficient; what is needed is an intraclass coefficient. The most commonly used reliability coefficients are the intraclass R calculated from values in an analysis of variance table and coefficient alpha.
Steps for Intraclass R
In motor skill performance settings it is often necessary to collect measures through observation. To examine the objectivity of these measures you look at the consistency of measures across observers (inter-rater consistency). Note: you may also video tape a group and have one person record measures on two occasions (intra-rater consistency).
To assess objectivity, your task, since the measures come from observations, is to examine the objectivity of the measures produced by observers using a rating scale. To do this, have two people observe one group of examinees and evaluate their performance using a rating scale. The measures from the two observers (you could also videotape the group and have one person evaluate the group twice) give you two scores per person to use in the coefficient alpha or intraclass R formulas. The Spearman-Brown formula is not needed in this situation since test length is not manipulated.
Note: When interpreting coefficient alpha or the intraclass R, a value > .70 reflects good objectivity. |
The branch of statistics concerned with using sample data to make an inference about a population is called inferential statistics. This is generally done through random sampling, followed by inferences made about central tendency, or any of a number of other aspects of a distribution. This section will focus on:
Parametric Tests for Differences |
Parametric Tests for Relationships |
Non-Parametric Tests for Differences |
Non-Parametric Tests for Relationships |
The dependent t-test is a statistical Procedure for testing H0: mean1 = mean2 when the two measures of the dependent variable are related. For example, when one group of subjects is tested twice the two scores are related.
Assumptions of the dependent t-test procedure:
Normality - is the distribution of differnece scores for each measurement of the dependent variable in the population normal? You check this assumption by obtaining a difference score for each person then examining the histogram for the difference scores for the group. The difference scores should be normally distributed.
Sample randomly selected. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by scrutinize sampling procedure
Dependent variable at least interval scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the dependent variable meets the definition of an interval scaled variable.
If assumptions met you can proceed and conduct a dependent t-test. If distributional assumptions not met you should conduct a non-parametric test (Wilcoxon)
Conducting dependent t-test
Under the analyze menu choose compare means then choose paired samples t-test.
Select the two variables that represent the two measures of the dependent variable and then move them to the paired variable(s) box. Click OK button.
To examine whether or not there is a statistically significant difference in means on some dependent variable (continuous) as a function of some independent variable (categorical) you can use the t-test when you have just two levels (unrelated) of the independent variable (ex: gender).
An Independent t-test is a statistical procedure for testing H0: mean1 = mean2 when the two levels of the independent variable are not related.
Homogeneity of variance - is the variability of the dependent variable in the population similar for each level of the independent variable? You examine this assumption by comparing the two standard deviations for the groups in your sample. If they are similar (larger divided by smaller <2) you have met this assumption.
Normality - is the distribution of scores for the dependent variable in the population normal for each level of the independent variable? You check this assumption by examining histograms for each group. The dependent variable should be normally distributed for each group in your sample.
Sample randomly selected. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by scrutinize sampling procedure
Dependent variable at least interval scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the dependent variable meets the definition of an interval scaled variable.
If assumptions met you can proceed and conduct an independent t-test. If distributional assumptions not met you should conduct a non-parametric test (Mann-Whitney).
Checking homogeneity of variance assumption
To get the standard deviation for the dependent variable (as well as mean though it is not of interest in checking homogeneity) on the groups that constitute your independent variable, from the analyze menu choose compare means then choose means.
Select from the list of variables the dependent variable you want standard deviations for and move it to the dependent list box.
Then select the categorical variable that constitutes the independent variable youre interested in and move it to the independent list box. Then click OK button.
Checking normality assumption
To conduct an independent t-test
Under the analyze menu choose compare means then choose independent samples t-test.
Select the dependent variable and move it to the test variable(s) box. Select the independent variable and move it to the grouping variable box.
Click on the define groups button. In the Group 1 box, type the value that identifies subjects in group 1. In the Group 2 box, type the value that identifies subjects in group 2. These are the values associated with the independent variable.
Click the continue button. Click OK button.
The repeated measures ANOVA is an extension of the dependent t-test. It is a statistical pocedure for testing H0: mean1 = mean2 = mean3 = ... when the two or more measures of the dependent variable are related. For example, when one group of subjects is tested three times the three scores are related.
Sphericity - do the population variances associated with the levels of the repeated measures factor, in combination with the population correlations between pairs of levels, represent one of a set of acceptable patterns. One of the acceptable patterns is for all the populations variances to be identical and for all bivariate correlations to be identical. You examine this assumption by applying Mauchleys test.
Sample randomly selected. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by scrutinize sampling procedure
Dependent variable at least interval scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the dependent variable meets the definition of an interval scaled variable.
If assumptions met you can proceed and conduct a repeated measures ANOVA. If distributional assumptions not met you should conduct a non-parametric test (Friedman)
Checking Sphericity assumption
Under analyze menu choose general linear model then choose repeated measures.
Once inside the repeated measures dialog box give a name to the within subjects factor - dependent variable - (by default it will be named factor1). In the number of levels box, type the number of repeated measures of the dependent variable you have. Then press the add button. Next press the define button. Highlight the variable names in the left side box that represent the repeated measures of the dependent variable and move them over to the within-subjects variable box. Then click the OK button.
Mauchleys test of significance will be automatically done. If significant, the condition of sphericity does not exist and an adjustment to the numerator and denominator degrees of freedom must be made. This is necessary in order to validate the univariate F statistic. Three estimates of this adjustment, which is called epsilon, are available in the GLM Repeated Measures procedure. Both the numerator and denominator degrees of freedom must be multiplied by epsilon, and the significance of the F ratio must be evaluated with the new degrees of freedom.
Conducting Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance
Since the procedure for checking sphericity entails complete specification of the variables needed to conduct the repeated measures procedure, no additional steps are needed. The output produced when checking sphericity includes the information needed to check for significant differences across measures of the dependent variable.
If Mauchleys test is not significant , the F statistic (or p value) needed to assess significance will be found in the table labeled sphericity assumed. If Mauchleys test significant, the F statistic needs to be compared to a new critical value based on adjusted numerator and denominator degrees of freedom.
To examine whether or not there is a statistically significant difference in means on some dependent variable (continuous) as a function of some independent variable (categorical) you can use the One way analysis of variance procedure when you have two or more levels (unrelated) of the independent variable.
A One way analysis of variance is a statistical procedure for testing H0: mean1 = mean2 = mean3 .... when the two or more levels of the independent variable are not related.
Homogeneity of variance - is the variability of the dependent variable in the population similar for each level of the independent variable? You examine this assumption by comparing the standard deviations for the groups in your sample. If they are similar (larger divided by smaller <2) you have met this assumption.
Normality - is the distribution of scores for the dependent variable in the population normal for each level of the independent variable? You check this assumption by examining histograms for each group. The dependent variable should be normally distributed for each group in your sample.
Sample randomly selected. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by scrutinize sampling procedure
Dependent variable at least interval scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the dependent variable meets the definition of an interval scaled variable.
If assumptions met you can proceed and conduct an independent t-test. If distributional assumptions not met you should conduct a non-parametric test (Kruskal Wallis).
Checking homogeneity of variance assumption
To get the standard deviation for the dependent variable (as well as mean though it is not of interest in checking homogeneity) on the groups that constitute your independent variable, from the analyze menu choose compare means then choose means.
Select from the list of variables the dependent variable you want standard deviations for and move it to the dependent list box.
Then select the categorical variable that constitutes the independent variable youre interested in and move it to the independent list box. Then click OK button.
Checking normality assumption
To conduct a one way analysis of variance
To conduct a one-way ANOVA, under the analyze menu choose compare means then choose one-way anova.
Select the dependent variable and move it to the dependent list box. Select the independent variable and move it to the factor box.
Click on post-hoc button if you have three or more levels of the independent variable. Check Scheffe. Click the continue button.
Click options button. Under statistics check descriptive and homogeneity of variance. Click the continue button. Click OK button.
To examine whether or not there is a statistically significant difference in means on some dependent variable (continuous) due to the influence of two independent variables (categorical) you can use the two way analysis of variance procedure when you have two or more levels (unrelated) of each independent variable.
A two way analysis of variance can be used to answer three questions: a) is there a difference in means on the dependent variable due to the 1st independent variable, b) is there a difference in means on the dependent variable due to the 2nd independent variable, and c) do the two independent variables interact to affect the dependent variable.
Constant variance - is the variability of the dependent variable in the population similar for each cell (combinations of levels of the independent variables)? You examine this assumption by comparing the standard deviations for each cell. If they are similar (larger divided by smaller <2) you have met this assumption. You could also look at the spread of your observations in a box-and-whiskers plot to see if the variability is markedly different in the groups.
Normality - is the distribution of scores for the dependent variable in the population normal for each cell (combinations of levels of the independent variables)? You check this assumption by examining histograms for each cell. The dependent variable should be normally distributed within each cell.
Sample randomly selected. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by scrutinize sampling procedure
Dependent variable at least interval scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the dependent variable meets the definition of an interval scaled variable.
If assumptions met you can proceed and conduct an independent t-test. If distributional assumptions not met you could conduct two non-parametric tests (Kruskal Wallis) to examine the main effects, but, there is no comparable non-parametric test to examine the interaction.
Checking constant variance assumption
To get the standard deviation for the dependent variable (as well as mean though it is not of interest in checking this assumption) for each combination of independent variables, from the analyze menu choose compare means then choose means.
Select from the list of variables the dependent variable you want standard deviations for and move it to the dependent list box.
Then select the categorical variable that constitutes the first independent variable youre interested in and move it to the independent list box. Then press the next button so you can identify a second layer. Then select the categorical variable that constitutes the second independent variable youre interested in and move it to the independent list box. With two layers identified, the mean and standard deviation for each combination of the two independent variables will be displayed in the output window. When done click OK button.
Checking normality assumption
To conduct a Two way (fixed) analysis of variance
To conduct a two way ANOVA, under the analyze menu choose general linear model then choose univariate.
Select the dependent variable and move it to the dependent list box. Select the independent variables and move them to the fixed factor box.
Click on the post hoc button then move variables over to the post hoc test box. Select Scheffe (or other test) then click continue.
Click on the options button and move variables you want means for over to the display means box. Under display select items you need (eg descriptive statistics, effect size) then click continue. Click OK button.
When the dependent variable is an ordinal variable a non-parametric test should be used to examine group differences. The reason for this is that one of the assumptions associated with parametric tests is that the data is continuous (at least interval scaled).
When parametric distributional assumptions (eg normality, homogeneity of variance) have been violated, even though the dependent variable may be continuous, a non-parametric test should be used to examine group differences.
This excerpt from the SPSS guide to data analysis explains well the application of parametric and non-parametric tests:
"The disadvantage to nonparametric tests is that they are usually not as good at finding differences when there are differences in the population. Another way of saying this is that nonparametric tests are not as powerful as tests that assume an underlying normal distribution, the so-called parametric tests. Thats because nonparametric tests ignore some of the available information. For example, data values are replaced by ranks when using the Wilcoxon test. In general, if the assumptions of a parametric test are plausible, you should use the more powerful parametric test. Nonparametric procedures are most useful for small samples when there are serious departures from the required assumptions. They are also useful when outliers are present, since the outlying cases wont influence the results as much as they would if you used a test based on an easily influenced statistic like the mean."
The Wilcoxon test is the non-parametric counterpart to the dependent t-test. It is a statistical Procedure for testing the null hypothesis that two medians are equivalent when the two measures of the dependent variable are related. For example, when one group of subjects is tested twice the two scores are related.
Symmetry - the differences between pairs of values be a sample from a symmetric distribution. This is a less stringent assumption than requiring normality, since there are many other distributions besides the normal distribution that are symmetric.
Sample randomly selected. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by scrutinize sampling procedure.
Dependent variable at least ordinally scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the dependent variable meets the definition of an ordinally scaled variable.
Checking symmetry
To get the difference scores, under transform, select compute. In the target variable box type in a variable name for the new variable you are creating that represents the difference between pairs of measures. In the numeric expression box place the first measure of your dependent variable followed by a minus sign followed by the second measure of your dependent variable, then click OK button.
Next, under the graph menu select histogram. Move the variable representing the difference scores over to the variable box, then click OK button.
Conducting Wilcoxon test
Under the analyze menu choose nonparametric tests then select legacy dialogs and then choose 2 related samples.
Select the two variables that represent the two measures of the dependent variable and then move them to the test pairs list box. Then click OK button.
The Friedman test is the nonparametric counterpart to the Repeated Measures ANOVA. To examine whether or not there is a statistically significant difference in medians from repeadted measures of a dependent variable (continuous) you can use the Wilcoxon test when you have two or more measures of the dependent variable.
Symmetry - the differences between pairs of values be a sample from a symmetric distribution. This is a less stringent assumption than requiring normality, since there are many other distributions besides the normal distribution that are symmetric.
Sample randomly selected. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by scrutinize sampling procedure.
Dependent variable at least ordinally scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the dependent variable meets the definition of an ordinally scaled variable.
Checking symmetry
To get the difference scores, under transform, select compute. In the target variable box type in a variable name for the new variable you are creating that represents the difference between pairs of measures. In the numeric expression box place the first measure of your dependent variable followed by a minus sign followed by the second measure of your dependent variable, then click OK button.
Next, under the graph menu select histogram. Move the variable representing the difference scores over to the variable box, then click OK button.
To conduct a Friedman test, under the analyze menu choose nonparametric tests then select legacy dialogs and then choose k dependent samples.
Select each measure of the dependent variable and move it to the test variable list box.
Click the continue button. Click OK button.
The Mann-Whitney U test is the nonparametric counterpart to the independent t-test. To examine whether or not there is a statistically significant difference in medians on some dependent variable (at least ordinally scaled) as a function of some independent variable (categorical) you can use the Mann-Whitney U test when you have just two levels (unrelated) of the independent variable (ex: gender).
Sample randomly selected. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by scrutinize sampling procedure.
Dependent variable at least ordinally scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the dependent variable meets the definition of an ordinally scaled variable.
Under the analyze menu choose nonparametric tests then select legacy dialogs and then choose 2 independent samples.
Select the dependent variable and move it to the test variable(s) list box. Select the independent variable and move it to the grouping variable box.
Click on the define groups button. In the Group 1 box, type the value that identifies subjects in group 1. In the Group 2 box, type the value that identifies subjects in group 2. These are the values associated with the independent variable.
Click the continue button. Click OK button.
The Kruskal-Wallis test is the nonparametric counterpart to the one-way ANOVA. To examine whether or not there is a statistically significant difference in medians on some dependent variable (continuous) as a function of some independent variable (categorical) you can use the Kruskal-Wallis test when you have two or more levels (unrelated) of the independent variable.
Sample randomly selected. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by scrutinize sampling procedure.
Dependent variable at least ordinally scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the dependent variable meets the definition of an ordinally scaled variable.
To conduct a Kruskal-Wallis test, under the analyze menu choose nonparametric tests then select legacy dialogs and then choose k independent samples.
Select the dependent variable and move it to the test variable list box.
Select the independent variable and move it to the grouping variable box. Click on the define range button. In the minimum box, type the lowest value that identifies subjects in your groups. In the maximum box, type the largest value that identifies subjects in your groups. These are the values associated with the independent variable.
Click the continue button. Click OK button.
When testing for the presence of a statistically significant relationship, the null hypothesis under examination is that the correlation between your independent and dependent variable is zero.
Linearity: are the two variables linearly related? This is checked by examining a plot of the two variables. If a straight line can be drawn through the points on the graph this assumptions has been met.
Homoscedasticiy: is the variability of the y values the same at each x? This is checked by examining a plot of the two variables. If the spread around the line through the points on the graph is constant you have met the homoscedasticity assumption.
Variables at least interval scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the variables meet the of an interval scaled variable.
If assumptions met continue and test for a significant relationship. If assumptions not met, recode continuous variables to categorical/ordinal data and use the chi square statistic.
Checking Linearity & Homoscedasticity Assumptions
Under the graphs menu choose legacy then scatter/dot.
Click define button. Select one of the two continuous variables and move it to the x axis box. Select the other continuous variable and move it to the y axis box. Click OK button.
Under the analyze menu choose correlate then choose bivariate.
Select the independent and dependent variables and then move them to the variables box. Then click OK button.
The Chi Square test of independence is used to examine the statistical significance of the relationship between two categorical/ordinal variables.
Expected frequencies must be greater than 5, and none less than 1.
Variables categorical or ordinally scaled. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by checking to see that the variables meet the definition of a categorical or ordinal variable.
Observations are independent. This implies that an individual can appear only once in a table. It also means that the categories of a variable cannot overlap. Careful examination of the variables chosen is the place to start when checking this assumption followed by how individuals are categorized.
Sample randomly selected. Examine whether or not you have met this assumption by scrutinize sampling procedure.
If assumptions met continue and test for a significant regression. If assumptions not met, no other statistical test available, so, report a measure of practical significance such as Phi or Cramers V.
Chi Square: Under the analyze menu choose descriptive statististics then choose crosstabs.
Once inside the crosstabs box select the row and column variables then single click on the statistics button select the chi square button click on the continue button. Single click on the OK button when selections complete.
While SPSS does have some capacity with respect to power estimation, software specifically designed to estimate power and determine a-priori sample size is recommended. The free software used in this course is G-Power. The directions here apply to the G-Power software.
Post-hoc power analyses are done after you or someone else conducted an experiment.
You have:
* alpha,
* N (the total sample size),
* and the effect size.
Effect size can be conceived of as measures of the "distance"
between H0 and H1.
Hence, effect size refers to the underlying population rather than a specific sample. In specifying an effect size, researchers define the degree of deviation from H0 that they consider important enough to warrant attention. In other words, effects that are smaller than the specified effect size are considered negligible. |
You want to know
* the power of a test to detect this effect.
For instance, you tried to replicate a finding that involves a difference between two treatments administered to two different groups of subjects, but failed to find the effect with your sample of 36 subjects (14 in Group 1, and 22 in Group 2).
Suppose you expect a "medium" effect according to Cohen's effect size conventions between the two groups (delta = .50), and you want to have alpha =.05 for a two-tailed test, you
to find out that your test's power to detect the specified effect is ridiculously low: 1-beta = .2954.
However, you might want to draw a graph using the Draw graph option to see how the power changes as a function of the effect size you expect, or as a function of the alpha-level you want to risk.
A priori power analyses are done before you conduct an experiment.
You have:
alpha,
the desired power (1-beta),
and the effect size of the effect you want to detect.
You want to know how many subjects you need:
the total sample size.
For instance, if you want to compare the effects of two treatments administered to two different groups of subjects, you choose
Suppose you expect a "large" effect according to Cohen's effect size conventions between the two groups (d = .80), and you want to have alpha = beta = .05 (i.e., power = .95), you
enter these values and click the "Calculate" button to find out that you need N = 84 subjects.
If you think this is too much, you might want to have G*Power draw a graph for you to see how the sample size changes as a function of the power of your test, or as a function of the effect size you expect. Simply click on the Draw Graph button.
For an ANOVA you need the same information plus you need to specify
the number of groups.
For a Correlational analysis, the effect size is the value of the correlation coefficient. G-Power will need the same information for a correlational analysis as it did with differences: effect size, alpha, power (to determine sample size) and effect size, alpha, sampole size (to determine power).
This technique can be used for
Steps for factor analysis